🌍 Foreword:

The Era of Energy Reconstruction In today’s rapidly shifting global landscape, energy is no longer merely the fuel of industry—it has become the foundation of computational civilization. As geopolitical tensions reshape supply chains and national priorities, energy security has emerged as a core strategic variable. Simultaneously, the AI revolution is unfolding at unprecedented speed, driving exponential growth in compute demand—from model training to inference deployment.

And at its core, compute is still a physics-driven process powered by electricity. China is undergoing a profound transformation of its energy architecture. Nuclear power, carbon conversion, fusion experiments, next-generation grids, and advanced storage technologies are not just technical milestones—they represent the strategic groundwork for a compute-powered future.

In this context, the very definition of energy is being rewritten: it is no longer the “lifeblood of industry,” but the skeletal infrastructure of the intelligent age. This issue of Know China Better focuses on three cutting-edge developments: •

🔋 Nuclear Power: The scaled deployment of Hualong One •

🌫️ CO₂ Power Generation: Breakthroughs in carbon-based energy systems •

☀️ Fusion Research: The Tokamak “Artificial Sun” in Hefei

Together, they form a triad of China’s energy strategy—and a new foundation for global compute civilization.

Amid the global push for energy transition and carbon cuts, nuclear power is quietly stepping back into the spotlight. And front and center of international energy chats? China’s homegrown nuclear unit: Hualong One. Let’s break this bad boy down like we’re gossiping about the latest tech drop.

I. From Blueprint to Reality: Hualong One’s Glow-Up

Hualong One’s journey kicked off in 2013. Back then, China’s two nuclear heavyweights teamed up to tackle a big goal: build a top-tier third-gen nuclear reactor that’s 100% their own, ditching the foreign tech monopoly. Let’s be real—relying on imports for key nuclear tech used to be a total drag: pricey as heck, and easy to get stuck with the short end of the stick (you know, getting held hostage by other countries). In 2015, Hualong’s first star—Fuqing Nuclear Power Unit 5 in Fujian—broke ground. This wasn’t just slapping up a house; every step was as precise as needlework. Early on, engineers hit a snag: the steam generator just wouldn’t line up right. Even a tiny misalignment could spell trouble for safety. But they pulled through with laser positioning tech, nailing precision thinner than a sheet of paper. Problem solved, no sweat. After five years of fine-tuning, the unit hooked up to China’s national grid in 2020, pumping out its first clean kilowatt-hour. By 2022, the demo project was fully up and running—proof Hualong One wasn’t just a pretty blueprint, but a total workhorse. Today, it’s not just powering spots like Fuqing, Fangchenggang, and Zhangzhou back home; it’s also killing it in Karachi, Pakistan, churning out steady electricity and becoming the poster child for China-Pakistan energy cooperation.

II. Hardcore Moves: The Secret Sauce to Safety & Efficiency

Talk nuclear power, and safety is everyone’s top concern. Hualong One didn’t come to play—this thing’s got three layers of armor, like a tank for nuclear reactors. The outer layer? Super-strong concrete mixed with borax and other special stuff. It can take a beating from typhoons, major earthquakes, and lock down radiation tight. In the middle, a sealed metal tank stops radioactive gunk from leaking if something goes sideways. And the cherry on top? Its “passive safety system.” No electricity or human help needed—gravity and natural circulation keep things cool and low-pressure. Even if the power’s out for days, it’s still safe. Total game-changer for risk reduction. And when it comes to nuclear waste disposal? Hualong’s got a solid game plan. First, they sort the waste—high-radiation vs. low-to-mid radiation. The high-risk stuff gets locked in special metal cans and buried hundreds of meters down in stable rock, cut off from the world for good. The low-mid stuff? After treatment, it gets repurposed for roads or industrial materials. Basically, every bit of waste gets a safe forever home—eco-friendly and secure long-term. Safety aside, Hualong’s tech specs are pretty sick too. It uses a 177-core design—plainly put, they crammed more fuel into the reactor (and arranged it smarter) than old models. That’s why it can go 18 months between refuels, instead of the usual 12. Less downtime (33% less, to be exact), way better efficiency, and lower safety risks during refueling. No more messing with frequent shutdowns that kill power supply and hike costs. And let’s not sleep on its automation game—it’s like having a 24/7 AI butler running the show, covering production, operation, and troubleshooting from start to finish. On the production line, 6-axis robots assemble fuel components 3x faster than humans, with a mistake rate under 0.1%. No humans near the dangerous stuff—total win. When it’s up and running, the AI monitors over 1,000 stats in real time. It tweaks reactor power in seconds to match grid demand (way faster than the old hour-long waits) and flips to safety mode automatically if a typhoon or quake hits—shutting down non-essentials and adjusting cooling without anyone lifting a finger. Even tiny glitches get pinpointed and fixed by the system. Back in the day, 20 people per shift monitored a unit; now it’s just 5. Automation level: maxed out.

III. More Than Just Juice: The Economic & Social Vibes

Hualong One’s production process is all about the details—precision and standardization are its bread and butter. Take the reactor pressure vessel, for example. It’s forged from a single 600-ton chunk of nuclear-grade steel. AI watches the temperature and pressure nonstop during forging, tweaking settings to avoid tiny flaws that could mess with its strength or radiation resistance. Critical welds? Handled by nuclear-grade robots—faster than humans, and precise to the micron. No leaks here. Even fuel assembly happens in a clean room, with robots placing each fuel rod perfectly (sterile, dust-free) and laser checks to make sure everything’s up to snuff. This top-tier process doesn’t just make Hualong reliable—it paves the way for mass production and cheaper costs down the line. This isn’t just a power machine—it’s an economic engine. Building it needs tons of high-end materials and gear: things like the reactor’s “heart” (the main pump) and heat-resistant nuclear steel. This pushed China’s related industries to step up their game—core parts that used to be imported are now made in China, slashing costs by 30%+. Financially, it’s a sweet deal. Yeah, R&D and construction cost a pretty penny upfront, but mass production cuts single-unit costs by 20%. Payback time? 15-20 years—way quicker than similar foreign tech. One Hualong unit cranks out over 100 billion kWh of electricity a year, enough to power millions of households. It also cuts 8 million tons of CO₂ emissions (that’s like ditching 2.6 million tons of coal) and rakes in over 5 billion yuan in annual output. Plus, it’s a job creator. Building one unit employs over 100,000 people—engineers, techs, construction workers, you name it. It’s a win-win cycle: build a unit, boost a bunch of industries, and lift up local economies.

IV. Going Global: China Nuclear’s Worldwide Flex

The global third-gen nuclear market is worth over a trillion bucks, and emerging markets like Southeast Asia and Africa are begging for stable power. Hualong One’s killing it here—thanks to its own IP, top-tier safety, and ability to fit different needs. The Karachi units in Pakistan are living proof. They fixed the local power shortage and put China’s nuclear tech on the map internationally. More and more countries are checking Hualong out—it’s not just a win for China’s nuclear industry, but a Chinese solution to global climate and energy security problems. From breaking monopolies to setting the bar, from homegrown success to global exports—Hualong One’s story is proof China’s high-end manufacturing is here to stay. The takeaway? Own your core tech, and you’ll stand tall in the global game. And when it comes to keeping the planet sustainable, clean, efficient energy solutions like Hualong are the way to go. This beast is just getting started—powering China and the world’s clean energy shift for years to come.

I. From Lab to Grid: The sCO₂ Turbine’s Glow-Up

The sCO₂ turbine isn’t some overnight sensation—it’s been cooking in labs for decades, but China’s been crushing the final stretch. A few years back, the energy industry was stuck with clunky steam turbines (you know, the ones that look like giant metal dinosaurs). They’re slow to fire up, guzzle space, and waste tons of heat. China’s engineers saw the gap and went all in: build an sCO₂ turbine that’s 100% homegrown, ditching the foreign tech bottlenecks. Here’s the tea: When CO₂ gets cranked to ultra-high pressure and temperature (over 31°C and 7.38 MPa, for the nerds), it hits a “supercritical” sweet spot—neither fully gas nor liquid, just a hyper-efficient fluid that’s basically a heat sponge. Early prototypes had kinks: keeping the CO₂ stable under extreme conditions was a nightmare, and the turbine blades kept wearing out fast. But Chinese teams fixed it with high-performance alloys and precision engineering—think tiny, tough parts that can handle the heat like a pro. Now, the payoff: China’s first commercial sCO₂ turbine projects are up and running, from solar thermal plants in the Gobi Desert to industrial waste heat recovery systems. It’s no longer a lab experiment—it’s a workhorse that’s proving it can hang with (and outperform) traditional turbines.

II. Hardcore Tech Flexes: Why sCO₂ Blows Steam Out of the Water

Let’s cut to the chase: sCO₂ turbines are better than steam turbines in every way that matters. First, efficiency—this thing’s a overachiever. Steam turbines top out at around 40% efficiency, but sCO₂ hits 45%+ and keeps climbing. That extra 5% might sound tiny, but it’s massive for power plants—more electricity from the same heat, less waste, fewer emissions. Size is another win. sCO₂ turbines are like the compact SUVs of energy gear—1/10 the size of a steam turbine with the same power. No more sprawling power plants that take up half a neighborhood; this thing fits in a garage (okay, a big garage) and is perfect for tight spots, like rooftop solar or remote mining sites. It’s also lightning-fast to start—fires up in minutes instead of hours, making it ideal for pairing with finicky renewables like wind and solar. And let’s not sleep on the eco-vibes. It uses CO₂ as the working fluid—yes, the same stuff we’re trying to cut—but it’s 100% recycled in a closed loop. No leaks, no waste, and it even works with carbon capture tech (CCUS) like a dream. Pair it with solar thermal or nuclear power, and you’ve got a zero-carbon setup that’s actually practical. Safety-wise? It’s low-risk—CO₂ is non-flammable, non-toxic, and way less volatile than steam. Total no-brainer.

III. More Than Just Juice: The Economic & Industrial Boost

This turbine isn’t just a tech win—it’s an economic powerhouse. Building sCO₂ turbines pushes China’s high-end manufacturing to the next level: think super-strong alloys that can handle extreme heat, precision bearings, and advanced control systems. These parts used to be imported, but now China’s cranking them out domestically, slashing costs by 30%+ and creating a whole supply chain of winners. Financially, it’s a cash cow. Sure, R&D and upfront costs are steep, but mass production and smaller size cut installation and运维 (O&M) costs by 20-25%. For solar thermal plants, it boosts revenue by turning more sunlight into electricity; for factories, it recycles waste heat into extra power—free money, basically. One commercial sCO₂ turbine can generate enough juice for 10,000 households, and it pays for itself in 8-12 years—way quicker than steam turbines. It’s also a job magnet. From alloy researchers to turbine technicians, building and maintaining these systems employs thousands. Plus, it’s a game-changer for rural areas and emerging markets—small, affordable, and easy to install, it brings reliable power to places steam turbines can’t reach. It’s a win-win: more clean energy, more jobs, more economic growth.

IV. Going Global: China’s sCO₂ Turbine Takes the Stage

The global market for high-efficiency turbines is blowing up—worth billions, with emerging markets like Southeast Asia and Latin America hungry for compact, clean power solutions. China’s sCO₂ turbine is already turning heads, thanks to its homegrown IP, unbeatable efficiency, and low cost. It’s not just competing with Western tech—it’s outperforming it. Early partnerships are popping up: China’s teaming up with countries to install sCO₂ turbines in solar thermal plants and industrial facilities. It’s not just selling gear—it’s selling a complete clean energy package that’s affordable and scalable. For countries trying to hit their carbon targets without breaking the bank, this turbine is a godsend. From lab prototypes to global exports, sCO₂ turbines are proof China’s leading the next wave of energy innovation. The takeaway? Ditch the old dinosaur tech, embrace smarter, smaller, more efficient solutions—and China’s showing the world how it’s done. This little turbine isn’t just a new toy for engineers; it’s the missing piece in the global clean energy puzzle. Get ready to see sCO₂ everywhere—this is just the beginning.

When it comes to the future of clean energy, fusion power is the holy grail—imitating how the sun makes energy, no carbon, no radioactive mess. And leading the charge to turn this sci-fi dream into reality? China’s Hefei “Little Sun” (EAST), the world’s top superconducting tokamak device. This bad boy is shattering global records and inching us closer to unlimited clean power. Let’s break down why it’s the biggest flex in fusion research, no stuffy physics jargon allowed.

I. From Lab Experiment to Record-Breaker: The “Little Sun’s” Glow-Up

The “Little Sun” (officially EAST, East Superconducting Tokamak) isn’t a new kid on the block—it’s been cooking in Hefei’s labs for years, but China’s engineers just kicked it into high gear. For 30 years, the global fusion community was stuck on a “density curse” (the Greenwald density limit), like hitting a brick wall. No matter how hard scientists tried, they couldn’t cram more plasma into the device without it blowing up, killing the reaction. Here’s the tea: Fusion needs two wild conditions—insane heat (over 100 million°C, 6x hotter than the sun’s core!) and a way to trap super-hot plasma so it doesn’t melt the machine. Early tokamaks struggled with both: heat faded fast, and plasma kept crashing into the walls. But China’s team went all in on superconducting magnets and precision control—building a “magnetic cage” to lock the plasma tight. By 2025, they shattered records: 120 million°C for 101 seconds, and 160 million°C for 20 seconds—crushing the old mark of 100 million°C for 20 seconds. They even broke that 30-year density curse, proving fusion can be stable and powerful. This isn’t just lab hype—the “Little Sun” is a testbed for real-world fusion. Every record it sets tweaks the formula for future commercial reactors. It’s no longer “if” fusion works, but “when”—and EAST is writing the playbook.

II. Hardcore Fusion Flexes: Why This “Sun” Blows Fission Out of the Water

Let’s cut to the chase: Fusion is the ultimate energy upgrade, and EAST is showing us why. First, the heat game—this thing cranks temps to 160 million°C, hot enough to force deuterium and tritium (hydrogen isotopes) to slam together and make helium, releasing insane energy. Unlike fission (traditional nuclear power), fusion leaves no long-lived radioactive waste—just harmless helium. Total eco-win. The “magnetic cage” is another game-changer. EAST uses superconducting magnets to suspend plasma in mid-air, so it never touches the device walls. No meltdowns, no leaks, no risk of catastrophic failure—way safer than fission reactors. And fuel? Deuterium comes straight from seawater (1 liter of water has enough to power a home for decades), and tritium can be made from lithium. It’s basically unlimited—no more fighting over fossil fuels or uranium. Stability is where EAST really shines. Before, fusion reactions fizzled out in seconds. Now EAST keeps the party going for over 100 seconds, proving steady-state fusion is possible. That’s key for commercial power—you can’t power a city with a 20-second burst. This “Little Sun” is turning fusion from a flashy experiment into a reliable workhorse.

III. More Than Just Heat: The Economic & Industrial Boost

EAST isn’t just a science win—it’s an industrial powerhouse. Building this “Little Sun” pushed China’s high-tech manufacturing to new heights: superconducting magnets (strong enough to lift an aircraft carrier), heat-resistant alloys that handle sun-like temps, and AI systems that tweak plasma in real time. These techs used to be imported, but now China’s cranking them out domestically, slashing costs by 35%+ and building a whole supply chain of winners. Financially, it’s a future cash cow. Sure, EAST’s R&D and upgrades cost a pretty penny, but the payoff is massive. Commercial fusion reactors could generate electricity for pennies per kWh—way cheaper than coal or fission. And since fuel is free and waste is zero, long-term costs are next to nothing. EAST is also a job magnet: thousands of researchers, engineers, and techs work on the project, plus countless more in the supply chain. It’s a win-win for innovation and the economy. For emerging markets, fusion (thanks to EAST’s breakthroughs) could be a game-changer. No need for expensive fuel imports or risky waste storage—just clean, cheap power for cities and factories. It’s the ultimate equalizer in the global energy race.

IV. Going Global: China’s Fusion Leadership Takes Center Stage

The global fusion market is gearing up to explode—worth trillions once commercialized, with every country craving a piece of the clean energy pie. EAST is already the star player, leading the pack in steady-state fusion and sharing tech with the international ITER project (the world’s biggest fusion reactor, under construction in France). China’s not just keeping secrets—they’re leading the global team, proving fusion is a team sport, not a competition. EAST’s records have turned heads worldwide. Scientists from the U.S., Europe, and Japan are partnering with China to study its data, hoping to replicate its success. This “Little Sun” isn’t just a Chinese achievement—it’s a global step toward ditching fossil fuels. For countries struggling to hit carbon targets, fusion (powered by EAST’s breakthroughs) is a godsend. From a lab in Hefei to the world stage, EAST is proof China’s leading the next energy revolution. The takeaway? Fusion isn’t just sci-fi anymore—it’s here, and China’s showing us how to make it work. This “Little Sun” isn’t just a machine; it’s the key to a future where energy is clean, cheap, and unlimited. Get ready—fusion power is coming, and it’s got “Made in China” written all over it.